Recent wildlife news.

Hello and welcome to my latest blog. I hope you are all well and are having a good week so far and have had some great wildlife encounters. Recently I was privileged enough to see a particularly fearless rook mobbing a pair of  buzzards. Although the action occurred a fair distance away the bird of preys irritation was clear, regularly turning to expose its talons towards the corvid. Despite the risks, the harassment only ended once the rook was satisfied the threat had diminished. It was a fleeting yet fascinating glimpse  into the challenges faced by both predators and prey. As always I hope you enjoy reading the blog and any feedback is welcome !

                                                     

Amazing Owls.

I recently watched Natural World Super -Powered Owls. If you have not already done so I would highly recommend giving this a watch. The images captured are quite simply stunning and a pleasure to watch !

Wildlife News.

Jerdon's  babbler rediscovered. 

A recent report has emerged which reveals the previously thought extinct Jerdon's babbler is in fact alive and well despite having not been sighted in Myanmar since 1941. The discovery was made by a team consisting of members from Myanmar's Nature and Wildlife Conservation Division and the National University of Singapore.

The find took place in  Mynamar during the early summer of 2014 while scientists where surveying an area around a now abandoned agricultural station. Also present in this area was a moderately sized patch of grassland, a favored habitat in years gone by for the species. Having heard the species call, the team then played back a recording and were soon presented with a sighting of an adult Jerdon's babbler. Over the next two days, many more individuals were discovered in the near area. This presented successful opportunities to obtain blood samples and photographs and brought to an end the belief this species had fallen victim to extinction.  

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Wildlife Conservation Society. "'Extinct' bird rediscovered: Last seen in 1941." ScienceDaily. ScienceDaily, 5 March 2015.

New research on ocean debris continues to produce shocking results.

Almost seven hundred species have now been recorded to have come across man- made debris. This resulted  in a total of 44,000 animals and organisms around the world  either becoming entangled or swallowing waste say researchers from Plymouth University. Of all reported cases plastic was responsible for ninety two percent. Incidents were most frequently  reported off North America's north and east coasts, Australia and Europe. 

Of all entanglements recorded, plastic rope and netting were the main culprits with species most affected being northern fulmars, northern right whales and green, loggerhead and hawksill turtles. In reported cases of ingestion, plastic was again found to be at the forefront of the problem. Green turtles and northern fulmars again were high on the list of worst affected species.  Other species seriously suffering as a result included the greater shearwater, Californian sea lion,  Atlantic puffin, and Laysan albatross. 

http://www.wildlifeextra.com/go/news/marine-debris-015.html

Findings shed new light on fearsome predators. 

Crocodilians have a playful side research by Vladimir Dinets has revealed. Dinets who has studied crocodiles and alligators for ten years has discovered they have fun engaging in playful behavior with objects, other crocodiles and other species. His results came as a result of his own observations and those of others conducted through informal surveys. 

Of the different categories of play; play with objects, locomotive play and social play play with objects was the most frequently recorded. This included playing with wooden balls, ceramic items and prey items. Locomotive prey included crocodiles surfing waves and young alligators repeatedly sliding down mud banks. Examples of social play included a crocodile giving its lifelong mate a piggyback and baby alligators riding on the backs of adults. Dinet also observed a young alligator playing with a river otter. 

http://www.wildlifeextra.com/go/news/crocodile-play.html#cr

 Odour based camouflage.

The harlequin filefish lives and feeds on acropora coral and consequently smells so similar to it the scent acts as a camouflage against predators. The smell of the filefish is so convincing, it has also been found to smell like home for crabs used to inhabiting the acropora coral. This is the first occurrence of diet based camouflage being utilised. 
BBC Wildlife March 2015 

Justice at last.

Over a six year period he became implicated in the slaughter of nineteen rhinos now after two years on the run Rajkumar Praja has been captured the WWF has stated. After having an Interpol arrest warrant put on him he was tracked down in Malaysia and extradited to his native Nepal. He know looks likely to face a fifteen year prison sentence for the rhino poaching  and trafficking rhino horns. 

http://www.wildlifeextra.com/go/news/nepal-rhino-poacher.html

So some good news to finish which is very nice! I will nether even come close to being able to understand  the sheer barbarity required to conduct these obscene crimes. Thank goodness in this case at least a main perpetrator has been brought to justice. That concludes my publication for this occasion and thank you once again for reading !

All the best, 

George Wykes

Twitter - ReallyWildWykes

Facebook -  https://www.facebook.com/reallywildwykes

Wildlife news and discoveries.

Hello and a belated happy new year to you all ! I hope you  had a great Christmas and spent plenty of time with your friends and family. Some of you may be wandering why there has been such a long gap between this and my last post. Well, the primary reason has been the result of an unfortunate incident wood chopping. Although this allowed me to sport a very impressive bandage for a while and able to tell a tale of woe to tell anyone who would listen, it also rather incapacitated my left hand and made typing far trickier ! Anyway, stitches removed and now over my traumatic ordeal, I'm back and keen to share with you some awesome wildlife news ! As always I appreciate feedback so feel free to comment and I hope you enjoy reading about the latest incredible findings in the natural world as much as I did. 

India's Tiger population on the increase.

Despite the sickening illegal trade in tiger parts still present as one of the primary threats to the worlds tigers, new research  on India's tiger numbers are encouraging. Between 2006 and 2014, an increase of 60% in population mean India is now home 2,226 individuals at the time of research. This makes up more than half of the worlds tiger population. This  increase in tiger numbers has been credited as the result of improved protection and management in tiger reserves and tiger protected areas.

  

To access full article http://www.wildlifeextra.com/go/news/tiger-population.html

Cambodia home to new species of legless amphibian. 

In the Cardamom Mountains of Cambodia, Ichthyophis cardamomensis of the amphibian order caecilian, has been discovered. This new species is only the second caecilian species now known to inhabit Cambodia. In tropical and subtropical areas, caecilians feed on a variety of invertebrates, while they themselves are a key prey item for the red tailed pipe snake. 

The Cardamom Mountains which are home to 80 species threatened with extinction, have shown a glimpse into a biodiversity largely unknown to science. This new discovery further illustrates their importance to the natural world. The region is under threat however as a result of logging, land concessions and varying forms of habitat destruction. I am sure I am not alone in finding the thought of losing this ecological gem deeply disturbing.

To access the full article http://www.wildlifeextra.com/go/news/legless-amphibian.html

How to deter an Elephant.

There can be little doubt that elephants are truly majestic animals. With humbling family bonds and remarkable intelligence, they are a perfect example of nature at its most magnificent. They can and often do however spell disaster for farmers in Africa and Asia who can suffer devastating losses as a result of the damage inflicted to their crops. Tragically, human loss of life also occurs with locals often unwittingly startling elephants with dreadful consequences. There are a variety of measures now in place to deter elephants from encroaching into areas of human habitation, here are a couple of my favorites.

Recorded tiger vocalization has been found to prevent elephants from entering crop fields. This comes as a result of elephants natural caution towards tigers as their calves have been recorded as prey items of the big cats. Research conducted in 2010 situated around two areas in southern India, found that when elephants heard the growls of captive tigers and leopards as a consequence of tripping an infra red beam, they would react by silently leaving the area. Research is now ongoing into creating commercially available  devices for farmers in the near future.  

Chili as a deterrent.

Capasaicin, the chemical responsible for the heat in chilis, has been found to cause elephants to cough, sneeze and eventually retreat research has found.  In Africa, some farmers are using this to their advantage by planting chili plants around their crops which then serve as a source of extra income. The Elephant Pepper Development Trust now teaches South African farmers to use rope fences which have engine oil and chili smeared on them and mount them with cow bells to act as a deterrent to elephants.

In Asia, farmers are also using chili as a way to deter elephants away from their crops. For example, in southern India farmers employ a mix of red chili pods, tobacco, hay and seeds encased in newspaper to cause a foul smelling smoke. Experts however warn of the risks of unguarded fields and advise chili to be used in combination with other deterrents rather than as an isolated form.

To read more of the deterrents being developed to reduce the risk of human- elephant conflict follow this link -http://www.bbc.com/earth/story/20141204-five-ways-to-scare-off-elephants

And speaking of Elephants......

Courtesy of GPS, it has been found that elephants can find rainfall from 100km away.  There is no definitive explanation for their ability to do this, but scientists believe  it may be they are able to hear the low ultrasound created by thunderstorms. 

BBC Wildlife January 2015.

http://news.bbcimg.co.uk/media/images/75514000/jpg/_75514241_061e14ba-e2ed-4742-8aba-23805735b382.jpg

Remote control Eels.

Not only do electric eels use their incredible predatory adaptions to stun their prey, new research has revealed their prey have further reasons to fear their underwater nemesis. While searching for their hidden target, eels produce pulses of electricity which are able to attach the prey species nervous system, causing involuntary twitches and subsequently reveal its position.

BBC Wildlife February 2015. 

Life Story.

Anyone who watched this series will surely consider it a privilege, I certainly did, it was truly breathtaking. I've attached the trailer for the series below to give a sample of the incredible wildlife behavior captured on film during the series.

That is all for this occasion and thank you for reading. I will be shortly producing a new blog dedicated to paleontology.  If that is of interest to you, your support would be much appreciated ! Have a great weekend,

George.

Twitter- reallywildwykes. 

World of dinosaurs.

What is your first thought when someone mentions the word dinosaur ? Perhaps it is the image of the infamous Diplodocus skeleton which cannot fail to attract your attention on entering the Natural History Museum, London. Maybe thanks to Spielberg’ s Jurassic Park it’s the prospect of the dinosaur of your nightmares the Velociraptor terrorising anything unfortunate enough to cross its path. For me I suppose it’s a mixture of Spielberg’s master class, many trips to natural history museums, hours of being glued to text books and in my younger years playing with many, many toy dinosaurs, rarely a trip out went by without another being added to the collection. And it was recently reading text on some fascinating new discoveries in the world of palaeontology which have provided the inspiration for the core of this latest blog. Such is my passion for the subject that after this I have decided to include a section dedicated to this field in every publication following this. As always I hope you enjoy it.

       Reign of the dinosaurs.

Dinosaurs first appeared in the form of Protodinosaurs some 252.3 million years ago after the Permian- Triassic extinction earlier than previously thought recent research has revealed. Tracks found in Poland and spreading across three ecosystems and four million years were discovered close to the village of Stryczowice. The evidence suggests however that these dinosaurs would of likely been smaller than a domestic cat with the largest tracks measuring 40 millimeters. Dinosaurs domination of the planet lasted until the late Cretaceous period 65 million years ago where a mass extinction event paved the way for mammals to assert themselves and begin a new reign of domination.

           Characteristics of a dinosaur.

·     Dinosaurs are divided into two predominant groups, Saurischian meaning lizard hipped or  Ornithischian meaning bird hipped species.

·     Erect leg posture as a result of cylindrical femoral head which fitted into a perforated hip socket and a hinge- jointed ankle.

·         All species were hind limb dominant.

·         Tail in most cases held off the ground.

·         Scales present on body which formed a non overlapping mosaic pattern.

·         Dinosaurs would often reach sexual maturity before growth had been completed.


http://static.guim.co.uk/sys-images/Guardian/Pix/pictures/2014/3/5/1394062955047/New-dinosaur-species-disc-009.jpg

Were dinosaurs warm blooded?

In recent years the preconception of dinosaurs being cold blooded like their modern day cousins has been thrown into doubt as a growing list of evidence to the contrary continues to build up.

Dinosaurs it was argued had to have been cold blooded as a result of belonging to the archosaur group the same group in which their close relative the crocodile also belongs . Professor Roger Seymour however in his study Dinosaurs, endothermy and blood pressure, stated that as a result of their long necks, high blood pressure would have been essential to get blood into their long necks. He also added that to successfully control the flow of blood a four chambered heart very much like those found in mammals and birds today would have been required. Seymour also believes that all archosaurs began as warm blooded creatures and crocodiles switched to a cold blooded life style as a result of their sit and wait behaviour.  

Counter arguments to the suggestion have included the positioning of sauropod necks. It has been suggested that if their necks remained horizontal there would have been little need for high blood pressure to ensure blood reached the brain.

Inertial homeothermy a system where animals are able to slowly warm up and cool down it has been suggested could have been employed by dinosaurs. It has however been counter argued that not all dinosaurs were large and even large dinosaurs began life small.

Further research from Seymour adds more weight to the warm blooded argument. In 2011 he compared the nutrient foreman – holes in thigh bones where blood is supplied to the bone of mammals and modern day reptiles. His hypothesis was the more active the animal the more blood needed to be supplied. He was proven correct the holes were indeed larger in mammals. He then compared these to dinosaur bones and found surprising results. The nutrient foreman found in dinosaur bones was greater than those found in mammals. This meant dinosaurs must have had to of had a high metabolic rate. Velociraptor and T.rex add further weight to this argument with findings revealing they were capable of top speeds of 38km and 29 km per hour respectively.

A team from the Catalan Institute of Palaeontology have also revealed significant evidence pointing in the direction of dinosaurs being cold blooded when they discovered lag lines on the bones of mammals. Lag lines are caused when environmental conditions are not favourable for growth and energy is instead used for the pure survival of the animal. A similar principle also occurs in trees. As these marks had been found on both dinosaurs and modern day reptiles it had been assumed dinosaurs were cold blooded. The finding of these marks on mammal bones proves this piece of evidence at least cannot be used to support the cold blooded theory.

And so with the list of evidence in favour of proving these creatures to be warm blooded, it would seem unless a finding of equal significance is found to contradict these new revelations, it would seem what we thought we knew about dinosaurs continues to be thrown into doubt.  

Dinosaur vocalisation.

A long trachea would have enabled long necked dinosaurs it is theorised to transmit low frequency noises over a large distance. It is also thought the nasal passages  found in the crests of duck billed dinosaurs known as hadrosaurs would have resonated at low frequencies and as a result may have been able to create low frequency noises.

The preconception of forests reverberating to the sounds of dinosaur vocalisation however could well be proven to be inaccurate. Hadrosaurs for example may have been able to produce low frequency sounds, but scientists are looking to modern day reptiles for answers to how these sounds could have been produced without the need for vocal chords. King cobras are shown as an example for how this could work, they possess soft tissue resonating chambers, capable of amplifying frequencies and consequently making hisses sound like growls. It has been suggested hadrosaurs could have also been capable of this.

And further evidence increases the likelihood of the range of dinosaur vocalisation being limited. Dinosaurs originate from the bird linage of divergence and so it could have been presumed they would possess the same vocal characteristics as birds today. This has been proven to be incorrect however with no evidence of vocal chords in either the earliest birds in the Mesozoic era or in their dinosaur relatives. Dinosaurs may have developed vocal chords independently of birds however there is no clear cut evidence of this. Dr Senter concludes as a result of this evidence that dinosaurs like their modern day relatives would most likely of hissed when disturbed and would have been unable to properly vocalise.

Evidence of dinosaur battles.

Therapod dinosaurs due to the predatory lifestyle they led are likely to be found with evidence of battle wounds. Two Allosaurus skeletons reveal evidence of the hardships of living a predatory lifestyle. One was found with injuries too its ribs, tail, shoulder, feet, toes and serious infections to its foot, finger and a rib. The severity of some of the injuries observed mean it is possible they were a factor in the predators death. In another skeleton an Allosaur tail suffered an injury suspected to be caused by the spike of a stegosaur. A famous Tyrannosaur skeleton named “Sue” revealed serious injuries caused by conflict with another Tyrannosaur and were found to reveal evidence of successful healing.

The fossil record also shows evidence of battles where herbivores successful repelled their attacker. A Triceratops horn was found to have been bitten off by a tyrannosaur however there was evidence of healing which would imply a successful outcome for the herbivore. Sauropod and Hadrosaur remains have also show evidence of healing after encounters with predators. The spikes of Stegosaurs have been found broken and damaged again with evidence of healing confirming these would have been used to fight.

Dinosaur facts bullet points.

·         700 species of dinosaur have been found 100 of those in Britain.

·        The largest dinosaur was Argentinosaurus, measuring in at 37 metres from head to tail, it was the length of a Boeing 737. It would have needed up to 100,000 calories per day.

·      The infamously small arms of Tyrannosaurus Rex could have either been used for holding prey, or if they had feathers as a courtship display.

·         The second toe of the Velociraptor was not used for slicing prey as first thought, instead it was used for gripping and pinning .

·         It has been theorised the tail of the Diplodocus may have been used as a weapon.

·         The head crest of Cryolophosaurus had the ability to flush blood as a result the colour of the crest would change and would have been used to either warn of danger or sexual availability.

·         The longest carnivorous dinosaur is thought to be Spinosaurus it is estimated it could have reached lengths of up to 18 metres.

New species of dinosaurs are discovered with incredible frequency, which makes the thought of what is still out there unknown to us waiting to be found so exciting. Here a new species has within the last few days been discovered in Venezuela.

 http://news.discovery.com/animals/dinosaurs/scrappy-bloodthirsty-dino-found-in-venezuela-141007.htm

I really hope you found this blog of interest, thank you for reading thank you for reading George :)

 Twitter ReallyWildWykes

References

Science Uncovered - Dinosaurs rediscovered
Dinosaurs a Field Guide
http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/10/101006085311.htm

       

New fossil discovery.

Hello all sorry for the massive break in between posts I have been really busy with work and volunteering and time has rather evaded me ! I hope you have all had a good summer especially with the weather  continuing to surpass expectations. I recently read about a fascinating new fossil discovery which makes up the content of this post. I hope you enjoy the blog.

First insect fossils recorded in Late Kimmeridgian marine limestones.

Field studies taking place between 2012 and 2013 led by French researchers and aided by two teams of amateur scientists the Société des Naturalistes et Archéologues de l'Ain and the Group 'Sympetrum Recherche et Protection des Libellules' in Orbagnoux, France on the Late Kimmeridgian marine limestone’s have recorded a historical first recent publications have revealed. The marine limestones are well known for their abundance of fish and terrestrial fauna. There had however only been one previous terrestrial based discovery before the findings of this latest research came to light, when plant remains had been found to of been transported in lagoons. As a result, this is the first occasion where insects and evidence of insect activity have been recorded in the area.

The discovery of a 6mm specimen of the species now known as Gallomesovelia grioti of the basal mesoveliidae family comprising of water treaders make it the oldest record to date of gerromorpha bugs . Modern water treaders have a predatory nature, living in humid locations with either a terrestrial or freshwater lifestyle. It has been theorised that Gallomesovelia grioti potentially could have lived in the near proximity of sea margins or as some modern species of mesoveliidae can in brackish parts of lagoons. Characteristics of gerromorpha species include large compound eyes and a rounded head not conversed transversely.

Also discovered was evidence of damage to zamite leaves as a result of insect feeding behaviour. Evidence of this activity in the fossil record in the late Jurassic is rare in comparison to records from the Triassic and Lower Cretaceous period and as such every recording is particularly welcomed. Signs of insect activity on zamite leaves illustrate there would have been a significant level of insect diversity and insect fauna it would appear was not restricted to aquatic or subaquatic bugs. Fossil evidence found in the limestone provides evidence of terrestrial insects utilising emerged lands with Jurassic lagoons in close proximity. The majority of the fieldworks findings however consisted of ammonites, bivalvia, shrimps, isopods and fish. These recent studies it would suggest show evidence of close terrestrial biota.

As a result of the excellent preservation of the recovered fossils, it appears likely the Kimmeridgian limestones are going to prove invaluable in increasing knowledge of the insect diversity of the Upper Jurassic, due to the superior quality of fossil preservation in comparison to those from the Bavarian lithographic limestone. This period proved to be an important time for the transition of evolution in terrestrial environments as the diversifying of flowering plants in the Lower Cretaceous period approached.

Source

Nel A, Nel P, Krieg-Jacquier R, Pouillon J, Garrouste R. (2014) Exceptionally preserved insect fossils in the Late Jurassic lagoon of Orbagnoux (Rhône Valley, France) PeerJ 2:e510 http://dx.doi.org/10.7717/peerj.510

That is all for this time I plan to get back into the habit of posting on a weekly basis so keep an eye out for it !

Thanks for reading George.

An update on all things wild !

Hello and welcome to my latest blog, I hope you are all well and have some nice plans for the summer holidays which are nearly upon us, lets hope we get that elusive Indian summer we keep being  promised !

Personally, my time as a university student recently came to an end after four years of highs and lows, and it was with a great deal of satisfaction tinged with a bit of sadness when I handed in my final year project and said my farewells. 

The blog this time around is a bit of a mixed bag, some of you may remember my piece on the potential to reintroduce large carnivores with the majority of the focus on the lynx back to Britain. Since then, Jamie Wyver has informed of his own project on reintroducing lynx to these shores. Not only is his work an excellent read  he has also  created a film on the subject and the links to both of these can be found below. I've been sent both humorous and factual links on the natural world and these will hopefully add a touch of variety to the blog and of course I'll be providing a brief update on my own wildlife encounters since you last heard from me, once again I hope you enjoy the blog. 

After an absence of thousands of years could the Eurasian Lynx prowl our woodlands once more? Jamie Wyver investigates.

Film Link.

http://wildvision.tv/film/rewilding

Blog link. 

One man and his lynx.

http://onemanandhislynx.com/

Latest wildlife sightings.

The last few days have offered some great wildlife sightings. I'm lucky that the cafe I work at during the seasonal holiday periods, is situated right next to the beach means it is not uncommon for marine wildlife to be observed from the workplace. This time a seal in the shallows caught the attention of staff and customers alike as the pinniped went about its daily business,  I tried to identify whether it was of the grey or common variety. This is a difficult task at the best of times and without binoculars I was unable to  clarify the matter. Due to the large number of grey seals around these shores and common seals despite their name are decidedly uncommon, I am fairly confident it assuming a grey seal was culprit. An i.d card courtesy of the Cornwall Seal Group can be found below.

I've also had the pleasure of seeing a wild  barn owl for the first time in many a year during the past week. These stunning birds a personal favorite of mine with their ghostly appearance, however the species has sadly been on a steady decline with agriculture being one of the leading causes of this.  Sights like these should be cherished and never taken for granted, it certainly put a broad smile on my face.

It's also easy to overlook the smaller aspects of the natural world but during my time on the local nature reserve, the sheer diversity of invertebrate life present is something impossible not to be amazed by. Their miniature world is one crucial for the balance of life as we know it, this quote by Sir David Attenborough emphasizes their importance far better than I can "If we and the rest of the back-boned animals were to disappear overnight, the rest of the world would get on pretty well. But if the invertebrates were to disappear, the world's ecosystems would collapse". 

Contrasting links.

My friend Mathew Button has very kindly sent me two contrasting links in terms of their nature one serious, one decidedly not. 

Firstly, check out this light hearted animation -http://www.thisiscolossal.com/2014/06/animator-helene-marchal-adds-animated-flourishes-to-video-of-a-sea-bird/

This though is a vitally important, when people think of lions they think of magnificent, powerful animals which demand respect wherever they roam. All of that is true, however not many may immediately think of them being endangered which sadly is also true and their decline is to say the least alarming. Without projects like this the fate of the lion is at best uncertain. http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2014/06/140611-shivani-bhalla-lions-samburu-kenya-conservation/

That's all for now I hope as always you enjoyed the blog and thanks for reading, 

George.

Email grwykes@gmail.com

Twitter @ReallyWildWykes

Reintroducing large carnivores to Britain, could it happen ?

Hello and welcome to my latest blog. There was once a time where elk and ox roamed Britain's woodlands alongside deer and wild boar, while wolves, lynx and bears made up a formidable trio of predators ready to predate upon those caught off guard. Nowadays however, the woodlands are very different, long gone are the large predators along with the elk and ox on which they would have predated upon. Beavers and wild boar have repopulated the latter with a great deal of controversy attached. In the absence of large carnivores, deer populations have flourished to the point in which Britain's forests have suffered badly,with some areas destroyed never to recover. And so this poses the question, could Britain support large carnivores once more? or since their disappearance have to many changes occurred for this ever to be a possibility ? This blog focuses on the cases of wolves and lynx's as bears literature suggests  are the least likely to make a recovery, time has changed the environment to much say some experts, for a reintroduction to be considered for the foreseeable future.

Reintroduction -  The pros and cons.

Reintroduction is defined as attempting to re-establish a species to an area it once historically ranged but has become either extirpated or extinct.  Britain it has been suggested has a moral responsibility to attempt to right the wrongs previously contributing to the demise of large carnivores, while the Bern Convention (1979) and Rio Convention (1992) oblige the UK to help the recovery of populations of species native to Britain. There are problems with potential re introductions however, along with environmental change and an ever increasing human population, it is extremely difficult for scientists to predict how successful a reintroduction will be when the target reintroduction species has been absent from the landscape for a long period of time.There are options available which scientists and ecologists can use. Successful reintroduction's into analogous ecosystems elsewhere can illustrate possible implications of reintroductions into the target area. Secondly, controlled introductions into the proposed  area can help to assess feasibility of a future full reintroduction. IUCN guidelines however state that the cause of a species extinction must no longer be present before any such action can be put into place.

•Link to photo credit: http://cdn2.arkive.org/media/C6/C6792C39-EA47-4A4E-87AC-8167A6A8DF12/Presentation.Large/Eurasian-lynx-in-summer-coat.jpg

Lynx  and wolves in Britain.

Lynx populations in Britain have been estimated to have reached the 7000 mark and their woodland range stretched from Scotland to as far down as Cornwall, England. The demise of the lynx came as a result of human deforestation, with the habitat  needed for both predator and prey depleted, both populations declined. When grazing by domestic animals from  farmers reduced remaining forest still further conflict between human  and predator as a result of livestock predation was inevitable. 

Wolves were common in southern England in the Saxon period which lasted from 410 to 1066 and would have out of preference targeted red deer as a prey species. In the 17th century though like the lynx and bears before them the wolf disappeared from  Britain. Hunting as a result of livestock predation and fear for human life is thought to be the main cause of the wolf's elimination from Britain.

Potential ecological impacts.

There are two ecological impacts caused as the result of the presence of predators. A density mediated affect as a result of predation and reduction of grazing pasture, and a no consumptive effect, where the foraging behavior and habitat use of prey species are affected. This is also referred to as creating a landscape of fear.

Deer populations in Britain are said to be ecologically unsustainable at present with areas of woodland so heavily grazed they will never recover. And this is where the landscape of fear principle could it has been suggested occur with the reintroduction of wolves as it has in Yellowstone National Park. A study found in areas classed as high risk predation areas plant growth increased on a yearly basis. The reintroduction of wolves it was concluded was an  act of management required for the recovery of riparian species and the protection of biodiversity.  Other ecological impacts potentially could include the provisioning of carrion for medium sized carnivores, however these could subsequently become prey items themselves. Passerine breeding success rates could also increase.  

Lynx however, are unlikely to create the same landscape of fear that it has been suggested wolves potentially could. This is illustrated by the findings of a Scandinavian study which found that despite 65% of roe deer fatalities being as  a result of lynx predation, no changes in habitat selection were found. This it has been theorised, is as a result of the territorial nature of roe deer.

There are also concerns over the impact lynx could have on the endangered capercaillie. Studies have found contrasting results in relation to  this point.  While Swedish lynx are found to include capercaillie in their diet, 29 radio collared lynx in Switzerland over a 10 year period provided just one instance of capercaillie in their diet out of recorded 617 prey items.  Intriguingly, 37 red foxes were also recorded potentially providing a help for gamekeepers and capercaillie alike. Despite this opposition argue that efforts should be concentrated on helping the aforementioned capercaillie and black grouse. There is a risk of competitive exclusion with wildcats however, due to differences in prey preferences, this is considered unlikely. 

Conflict and solutions  

Threat to human life is always going to be the greatest concern when the topic of reintroducing large carnivores arises however there are no recorded attacks by lynx on humans and wolf attacks are very rare.

Another issue of concern is predation of livestock, both wolves and lynx do take domestic animals. It has been shown however in some cases, wolves even when faced with  depleted natural prey availability and high densities of livestock nearby, will still show a clear preference for natural prey. Livestock were found too  take up a minority percentage of their dietary intake. 

Subsidies also offer a solution to loss of livestock to predation. In the Pidemont area of Northern Italy, a compensation plan to pay lump sums of money in the event of goat or sheep damage, is related to the flock size and starts after the event of the first attack. After this the compensation paid increases by 15 % for every attack that follows. The total amount of compensation is then shared between the owners of the flock animals with the amount of money received correlating with the amount of animals owned. It is thought that this system could be the reason there is not a greater level of opposition from Scottish farmers towards wolf reintroduction, as sheep barely make a profit and farmers could benefit more from them via a subsidies system. Veterinary checks on carcasses would have to occur however to prevent fraudulent claims. And in the case of lynx with better preventative measures and a greater tolerance towards problem animals, domestic predation and conflict with people has been found too significantly decrease.

So is there room for large carnivores in modern day Britain ? 

The idea of reintroducing the lynx would seem to be the most feasible particularly on island nature reserves or on enclosed eco-parks. In the two potential habitats for lynx in Scotland, after basing the densities of four species of deer; roe, red, sika and fallow deer, it has been predicted that suitable habitat in the highlands, potentially could be able to support 2.63 lynx 100 km² and the southern uplands could support 0.83 lynx 100 km² extending across the border and into the English section of the Kielder Forest. After this information had been applied to the amount of suitable habitat it has been estimated the highlands could support 400 lynx and the southern uplands 50. If this were to happen, Scotland would be supporting the fourth largest population of lynx in Europe.

A suggested location for a trial reintroduction of wolves is the Isle of Rhum Scotland, where wolves have never existed on the island. The reasoning the suggestion is an overly large population of deer and aside from Nature Conservancy staff no human inhabitants. This echoes of a similar trial in Coronation Island, Alaska during the year 1960, which ultimately failed as the deer with limited places to hide on a small island declined quickly in population leaving the wolves lacking food sources and ultimately led to their demise. It is thought that due to the large home range sizes and small population densities of large carnivores, the Scottish highlands is the only location a feasible population could be supported.

Link to image credit: http://images.nationalgeographic.com/wpf/media-live/photos/000/005/cache/grey-wolf_565_600x450.jpg

So is Britain ready for a return of the  large carnivores ?

The lynx the evidence suggests is perhaps the most likely species to e reintroduced, wolves less likely and bears a very distant possibility. Prey sources are abundant, the required habitat available and space plentiful certainly for the lynx and quite possibly for the wolf as well. Changing peoples views on reintroducing large carnivores is potentially one of the biggest obstacles, and a trial reintroduction in a fenced areas  is almost certainly needed before a full reintroduction could take place. 

The thought of large carnivores once again stalking the woodlands of Britain is surely one that cannot fail to capture the imagination. How long before this idealization becomes reality if at all remains to be seen. Personally I long for the day when  the howls of the wolf echo around the woodlands of Britain once more and lynx are back living their secretive lives barely leaving a trace of their mysterious existence.

That's all for now thank you for reading, 

all the best, George.

Twitter @ReallyWildWykes

Email grwykes@gmail.com